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Open Access
A study on the impact of environmental degradation on river behaviour in jaldhakaduduya watershed, jalpaiguri district, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Sarkar, Sriparna; Sarkar, Subir
A watershed or a drainage basin consists of a main or trunk river, with several tributary river channels, both perennial and non-perennial, converging with the trunk river and spreading both water and sediments throughout the area covered by the entire network of channels. Movement of water and sediments, controlled by several geologic, physiographic, meteorological and anthropological factors may be affected by alterations in any of these factors, affecting thus, the entire fluvial dynamics of the watershed itself. This applies especially to watersheds located in areas, having a propensity to delicate ecological balance. Watersheds located between physical units with different structural and physiographic characteristics, or threshold regions are marked by more frail ecological balance, having long term effects on economy and livelihood of an entire region. The Jaldhaka- Duduya Watershed situated at the heart of the Eastern Himalayan Foothills known as Duars or Dooars, covering parts of Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar districts of West Bengal, India provides a typical example of such an area. Interaction of physical and anthropogenic factors leading to land degradation, riverbank erosion and soil erosion, causing hardships for the agro- based economy of the watershed. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of the problems through reconnaissance surveys, extensive field surveys were done to study the both the causes and effect of environmental degradation on river behavior within the selected study area.The Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed, is made up of two broad physiographic regions, which may be stated as micro- thresholds, located within a short longitudinal distance (<100km). These are the distal alluvial fan surface region of the northern plains in the north and the floodplain of Jaldhaka and Duduya in the south has marked differences in rainfall regime, soils and natural vegetation, clearly visible within relatively short distance from the mountain front, which marks the northern boundary. The piedmont terraces lying at the base of the mountain front marks the active alluvial fan surface. The Jaldhaka River, originating from the Lesser Himalayas of Sikkim, is the main river of Jaldhaka, while River Duduya originating from the piedmont terrace region lying at the base of Himalayan Foothills is the main river of the Duduya watershed. The northern part, constituted by quaternary deposits of various sizes forms the entire piedmont and the escarpments bordering them. The floodplain consists of mostly sandy soil, mixed with silt, with slight increase of clay at the extreme south. The Jaldhaka and its major tributaries flow through north-south trending faults and fault lineaments which were created due to neo-tectonic activities in Bhutanese Lesser Himalayan zone. The Rethi, which constitutes the Lesser Himalayan and the piedmont section of R. Duduya, also follows quaternary fault lineaments. Relief zones of the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed show rapid change of elevation within small distances; a very small area in the extreme north in Sikkim with >4000m elevation from sea level, forming the source region of Jaldhaka. About 25% of the northern and north-eastern part of the watershed located in Bhutan’s territory, has 2500-1000m elevation from sea level, marking the source regions of the major tributaries of Jaldhaka, namely, Daina, Chamurchi and Rethi Rivers. More than 50% of the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed has 50- 100m above sea level, forming the southern floodplain. The Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed experiences tropical warm and moist climate, receiving copious monsoon rainfall. High rainfall mostly occurs due to formation and stationing of the monsoon trough over the neighbouring Sikkim or Bhutan Himalayas, or from low pressure areas, which are created during the monsoon, bringing in heavy and clustered rainfall or causing rainstorms. Monsoon rainfall received at the northern part, situated at the base of the mountain front, is more than twice the monsoon rainfall received at the floodplain section in the south. Due to such variations of rainfall six rainfall zones may be found within a northsouth distance of 100 km and west-east distance of <50 km. High intensity rainfall received during rainstorms lead to flash floods in different parts of the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed. Simple statistical techniques have been used to identify characteristics of rainfall within the watershed, for which both rainfall data collected by selected tea gardens and data collected from registered website of Indian Meteorological Department have been used . Parameters like seasonal and daily rainfall, average 24hour rainfall frequencies, maximum 24 hour rainfall have been used. Time series analysis of annual rainfall of some selected tea gardens of the area show little or no variation for the first decade (1923-1952), distinct rising trend during the second decade (1971- 2000) and finally, a clear decreasing trend for the third decade (2001-2019), which is further substantiated by calculation of standard deviation of decadal rainfall. Annual rainfall has decreased throughout the watershed, as proven by mean rainfall calculated for the post- 2000-s period. There is, thus, a change in rainfall pattern within the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed; the prevailing change is increasing frequencies of rainstorms, occurring both in the piedmont and floodplain sections. Longitudinal profiles constructed for the Jaldhaka and the major rivers of the watershed reveal variations of relief and degree of concavity. Least square regressions were done to fit longitudinal profiles, showing elevation-distance data, which show concavity for all rivers and breaks of slope, indicating tectonic control, except Duduya, which originates from the piedmont terrace. The Streamlength Gradient Index (SLGI) developed by Hack was also used to calculate degree of structural control on the rivers, which indicate youthful stage for major rivers, except Duduya. Transects constructed across major rivers at selected sites and at selected time intervals, bring out preponderance of braiding activity in Jaldhaka, Daina and Rethi Rivers, with propensity of bank attrition and toe erosion, especially, following rainstorms or periods of clustered monsoon rainfall. Evidences of north- south shifting of the confluence of Jaldhaka and Daina is noted from satellite images and Google maps. Only River Duduya has a comparatively stable channel, with comparatively lower degree of bank erosion. Increased sedimentation within the channels of major rivers and their tributaries, specially rivers with source regions lying deep within the Bhutanese Lesser Himalayan zone causes increased braiding, accumulation of lag deposits within channels in the piedmont and alluvial fan sections, lying within Indian territory. This is found to occur due to unplanned mining activities, mainly within Bhutanese territory, gratuitous lifting of sand and gravel from beds of Daina and Rethi within Indian territory, resulting in steady raising of beds of both tributaries and the trunk river itself, increasing thus, the risk of floods, during periods of active or vigorous monsoon or during rainstorms. Rapid urbanization in and around the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed, necessitating construction and refurbishment of communication network of the region, construction and extension of settlements and tea garden areas in upper catchment and source regions of rivers, have increased amount and frequencies of slope wash, slope failures and landslides, debris being transported downstream, choking smaller channels and further increasing sedimentation and braiding activities. All of these have led to fertile agricultural lands becoming flood- prone and barren for considerable periods. Thus, general land and environmental degradation throughout the watershed has set in, affecting the chiefly agrarian economy of the area. Hydrographs could, however, be constructed only for Jaldhaka, which is the main river of the watershed. It is observed, that, rainstorms lasting for two or three days at maximum, are capable of triggering peak discharge resulting in flood flows followed by a series of events, ranging from soil and riverbank erosion, or even avulsion, which decrease rapidly, almost immediately after rainfall decreases or stops altogether. Return period of floods with very high discharge has remained the same, but return period of floods with medium to moderately high discharge seems to be increasing during recent years. Risk of floods has increased during recent years due to environmental degradation, in spite of the changing rainfall pattern, that indicates somewhat decreased annual rainfall. Flooding and inundation have become annual phenomena, for bigger and smaller rivers alike. Popular measures of protection from floods, like construction of flood embankments have been successful, only initially. With increasing demand for regional development, need for improved transport and communication system, improved housing and certain amenities cannot be denied to local people. Sustainable development measures for regional development, with minimized effects of the delicate ecological balance are suggested for the Jaldhaka- Duduya watershed.
Open Access
Probing assorted host-guest interactions prevailing in various environments to explore different target analytes by diverse spectroscopic contrivances
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Maiti, Arpita; Roy, Mahendra Nath; Ray, Tanushree
Probing the host-guest interaction to identify various environmentally harmful and biologically important substances which are known as target analytes of paramount importance to the scientific communities to sustain peaceful and livelihood life in modern civilization. These are known substances with known chemical, physical, and other properties. They are either known or thought to be in samples, and they must be determined to meet the objectives of the environmental analysis program. The target analytes which are known as guests and chromo-fluorogenic compounds which show signaling in the presence of analytes are known to be hosts. These interactions strategy is broadly accepted, understood, and used in analytical and environmental research, environmental security programs, and many other surveys of investigation. It is employed in most environmental quality surveys and government regulatory compliance monitoring programs. Target analytes include cations, anions, chemical warfare agents (CWAs), pesticides; herbicides used by farmers in cultivation, and food adulteration that negatively affects public health. In very small amounts, many of these are necessary to support life such as cations and anions. However, in larger amounts, they become toxic. They may build up in biological systems and become a significant health hazard. The abuse of CWAs and explosive materials has become a severe issue globally and is used by anti-national terrorist groups for the sake of power. The suppression of abuse of these lethal substances and unwanted crimes for the sake of the livelihood environment and humankind's safety are urgently needed. The researchers are actively engaged in developing and updating the field of detecting these toxic and explosive chemicals. Among the various CWAs, sarin gas and explosive nitroaromatic compounds are highly dangerous, poisonous, and harmful. However, the direct use of some lethal substances such as CWAs is strictly prohibited in laboratories; instead, the use of some surrogate substances has been taken into focus, usually serving as its mimics owing to their similar properties and lower toxicity. Keeping the above facts in mind, in the present thesis, we have introduced various chromo-fluorogenic host molecules that are characterized by diverse conventional analytical techniques which are employed for the detection of some metals, anions, explosive nitroaromatic compounds such as picric acids, sarin gas mimics diethylchlorophosphate exploring the host-guest interaction strategy by versatile spectroscopic contrivances in various environment. A summary of each chapter of the present thesis is given below, one by one. Chapter 1: This chapter commences with a concise examination of assorted host-guest systems employed in chemosensors, transitioning to an exploration of the fundamental principles and working mechanisms behind the design of chemosensors based on various photophysical processes, illustrated with relevant examples. A brief survey of the literature on national and international status is also discussed to establish the novelty of the present thesis in the current scenarios. At the end of the chapter main objectives and applications of the current research work within the broader context of scientific advancements are described. Chapter 2: This chapter discusses the general methods and instruments used throughout the research work. Chapter 3: This chapter explores the affordable and incredibly sensitive sustainable sensors for recognizing Al3+ ions with enormous practical applications. A simple and reliable sensor DPAB was developed. by reacting benzene-1,4-diamine with N, N-dimethyl cinnamaldehyde. The sensor is extra highly reputable concerning Al3+ ions and exhibits an incredible color change in DMSO and DMSO-H2O (9:1 v/v) solution, allowing us to visually distinguish Al3+ ions from other metals and anions essentially including Al3+ and PO43- in the DPAB solution, the sensor's spectral responses and apparent color shift can be switched backward and forward. This can be conceptualized as a complementary "INHIBIT" logic gate at the molecular phase. We have developed a molecular-scale subsequent memory device based on a reversible and repeatable detection system that exhibits "Writing-Reading-Erasing-Reading" and "Multi-Write" functionalities as binary logic. The lowest detection limits (LOD) for Al3+ and PO43- ions are determined to be 3.29 nM and 3.89 nM, respectively, considerably lower than other chemosensors described in the literature. Additionally, for on-the-spot detection, the probe may also be utilized in the test strips with a superior selectivity for the detection of Al3+ and PO43- ions. Moreover, we also performed the smartphone-based technique for the practical utility of DPAB in the DMSO-H2O (9:1 v/v) solution for on-spot detection and quantification. The effectiveness of DPAB and DPAB-Al3+ complex suggests that DPAB may be used as a sensitive probe and be applied to the analysis of real samples. Figure 1: Pictorial demonstration of detecting performances of our introduced imine linkage DPAB chromogenic probe for cascade detection of Al3+ and PO43- ions. Inorganica Chimica Acta 121966 (564) 2024. Chapter 4: In this chapter, a new symmetrical aza-substituted chromo-fluorogenic sensor, BPH, for specific detection of sarin gas, one of the fatal G-series nerve agents surrogate, diethylchlorophosphate (DCP) has been introduced. BPH shows a noticeable naked eye colorimetric change from pale yellow to light pink in the presence of DCP, displaying highly intense bright greenish cyan color photoluminosity under a 365 nm UV lamp, which is also manifested from the color chromaticity diagram. A BPH-staining paper stirps-based test kit experiment has been demonstrated for the onsite detection of nerve agent mimics. A more attractive and efficient application of BPH as a sarin gas vapor phase sensor mimics DCP in solid and solution phases. The BPH-based chromo-fluorogenic sensor shows excellent selectivity toward DCP with a detection and quantification limit in the μM range. The work invokes a new way for the researchers to detect DCP employing a simple chromo-fluorogenic sensor, which could be prepared by a time-saving, straightforward, handy protocol from the cost-effective starting materials. Figure 2: Pictorial representation of detecting performances of our introduced azine-based BPH chromo-fluorogenic probe for detection of DCP. Journal of Fluorescence, DOI: 10.1007/s10895-024-03681-1. Chapter 5: This chapter highlights the investigation of the detection of essential trace elements for living organisms such as copper (Cu2+) ions. The Cu2+ ions are the most important from kitchen to industrial life. However, Cu2+ ions are vital for the human body and are associated with necessary physiological processes; insufficient or excessiveness has many hazardous effects on our bodies. In the present contribution, strategically, we have introduced a julolidine-coupled azine-based (HDBQ) reversible chromo-fluorogenic probe for specific detection of Cu2+ ions. Probe HDBQ exhibits observable orange colorimetric change from yellow, which is visible to the naked eye in daylight. The highly green fluorescence HDBQ becomes a non-fluorescent one with the incorporation of Cu2+ ions. Interestingly, the colorimetric change and non-fluorescent HDBQ-Cu2+complex reverse to the original HDBQ in the presence of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA). The detection and quantification limit of HDBQ towards the detection of Cu2+ ions is found to be in the μM range, which is much lower than the limit (31.5μM) recommended by WHO. We have also performed a colorimetric and fluorometric paper-based test strips-based experiment employing HDBQ for real-time on-site detection of Cu2+ ions. Using the reversibility characteristics of HDBQ for the consecutive addition of Cu2+ and EDTA, we have established the INHIBIT molecular logic gate. The present report brings a precise and sensitive probe for the detection of Cu2+ ions in real environmental and biological samples. Figure 3: Pictorial demonstration of detecting performances of our introduced julolidine coupled azine-based reversible chromo-fluorogenic probe for specific detection of Cu2+ ions having sensitivity in the μM range. Journal of Fluorescence, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10895-023-03577-64. Chapter 6: The severe toxicity and easy availability of nerve agents have caused an increase in the need to develop effective methods for identifying these lethal substances. Among the traditional platforms employed for this kind of purpose, chromophore-based chemosensors have garnered a significant amount of attention. In this chapter, we have designed, prepared, and characterized (N1E, N4E)-N1, N4-bis((Z)-3-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl) allylidene)benzene-1,4-diamine, BDPA, a simple chromogenic probe of symmetrical diimine, having the extreme capability to sensing DCP, the mimic of chemical warfare agent sarin not only in solution but also in solid and vapor phases with highly selective and sensitive manner. In the presence of DCP, a remarkable color change from light yellow to blue is observed in pure acetonitrile solvent and also shows pink color in 10% acetonitrile-water by the naked eye, comes back to its former state after the introduction of triethylamine (TEA) which is found to be five times recyclability by alternately adding DCP and TEA. The detection limit of BDPA with DCP has been estimated in the nanomolar range, and also, response time towards sarin surrogate DCP is within a few minutes (~ 5-6 minutes.). To determine its practical usability, we have developed a portable test kit that uses paper strips to assess the capability of BDPA for in-situ recognition and measurement of DCP. A dipstick method has also been executed to recognize gaseous DCP within the stores of analogous hazardous analytes to prove the effectiveness of the sensor, BDPA. A smartphone-based readout novel technique, i.e., RGB analysis, has provided an innovative platform for the instant, on-site, visible identification and measurement of DCP in remote areas. The current work presented an incredible probe and method for conveniently and instantly detecting and quantifying sarin gas mimics in actual dangerous circumstances. Figure 4: Demonstrate the detecting performances of our introduced imine-linkage simple chromogenic probe, BPDA for the detection of sarin gas mimic, DCP with a nanomolar range detection limit. Microchemical J. 10997 (199) 2024. Chapter 7: This chapter attempts to introduce a chromone-coupled adenine-based fluorogenic chemosensor (BD1) that has been introduced and characterized by different conventional analytical methods. Our developed sensor can selectively and sequentially detect Zn2+ and HSO4- or Zn2+ and picric acid (PA) based on the fluorescence ‘OFF-ON-OFF’ mechanism. A momentous fluorescence improvement has been observed after the accumulation of Zn2+ ions in the BD1 solution at 475 nm due to the creation of the Zn2+ chaleted BD1 complex. A cyan color fluorescence enhancement is visible under the exposure of a 365 nm UV lamp, which is also manifested in the CIE diagram. The detection limit of our developed sensor BD1 and Zn2+- BD1 complex towards the identification of Zn2+ and HSO4- ions are in the nM and μM range, respectively, in the solution phase. Among the several explosive nitroaromatic compounds (NACs), only PA quenches the fluorescence Zn2+ chelated BD1 complex, and the nature of quenching is both static and dynamic. Zn2+ chelated BD1 complex could detect PA selectively in the μM range among all the tested NACs. We have fabricated a paper strips-based test kit and successfully utilized it for practical on-spot identification of Zn2+ ions and PA. Based on the chemically encoded input as Zn2+ ions, PA, and the fluorescence intensity as output, we constructed an INHIBIT molecular logic circuit. The present report evokes a new approach for the development of new chemosensors from bioinspired materials such as adenine, a purine nucleobase. Figure 5: Represent the detection performance of BD1 for cascade detection of Zn2+ and HSO4- ions or Zn2+ ions and picric acid. ChemistrySelect, https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202304947. Chapter 8: Finally, a summary of the present thesis and the future perspective from the present research work has been delineated in this chapter.
Open Access
Exploring gut microbiome of a unique intestinal air-breathing fish Lepidocephalichthys guntea
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Basak, Chandana; Chakraborty, Ranadhir
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a favourable ecological niche for a large number of microorganisms, and as in other animal groups, a wide range of microbes colonizes the GI tract of fish. Although GI tract of fish is generally dominated by members of Bacillota, Pseudomonadota and Bacteroidota, bacterial abundance and pattern of dominance, strongly depends upon various biotic and abiotic factors that includes variety of fish, structure and microarchitecture of GI tract, condition of water, temperature, geographical regions, availability of nutrients and oxygen in water. The loach Lepidocephalichthys guntea is a freshwater fish of the family Cobitidae. Native to South and Southeast Asia, these loach exhibit market values as well as unique characteristics of intestinal breathing that make it an interesting addition to freshwater aquaculture as well as aquariums. They are bottom-dweller, often seen scavenging for small invertebrates and organic matter in the substrate. During eutrophication or drought these fish come to air water interface and gulp water through mouth that passes to intestine. After consumption of oxygen via posterior intestine, rest air is voided through the rectum. The first objective of our study was focused on isolation of both aerobic and facultatively anaerobic cultivable intestinal bacteria of L. guntea using conventional culture-based techniques. This study was aimed to investigate both the autochthonous and allocthonous gut bacterial population. For this, a set of wild healthy fish were dissected and intestinal bacteria were retrieved using the dilution plate technique on selective media. Gut bacteria of this fish showed considerable species diversity. These isolates were characterized using morphological and biochemical parameters that was further followed by taxonomic identification and construction of evolutionary lineage of each gut isolates. Results showed that Staphylococcus spp., Rhodococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Solibacillus sp., Verticiella sp., and Oceanobacillus sp. were allocthonous gut isolates while Enterobacter sp., Comamonas sp., Klebsiella sp., Shigella sp., and Staphylococcus spp. reflected the autochthonous gut bacterial population. In our second objective, these isolates were tested for several environmental stress factors that include temperature, salinity, pH, antibiotic resistance, and heavy metal resistance properties which yield a selection of six different isolates. Selected isolates named as Shigella sp. GCP5, Comamonas sp. GCA5, Staphylococcus sp. GCP4, Rhodococcus sp. GG48, Bacillus sp. GG161, and Verticiella sp. GG226 were subjected to whole genome sequencing and genome mining. Experiments showed that all six gut isolates showed growth when they were subjected to cold and heat stress in laboratory with lowest temperature tolerance of 4 oC and highest temperature tolerance of 42 oC. Genome mining revealed that all the isolates carry different sets of cold shock and heat shock response genes which enable them to tolerance the stress. While saline stress was applied on these isolates using NaCl, each of them showed different tolerance range. Genome mining showed that, salinity tolerance was performed majorly by potassium (K+) uptake. Also presence of genes encoding different compatible solutes like glycine betaine, ectoine, and proline were reflected all the gut isolates. Another stress factor was pH, against which these gut isolates showed a wide range of tolerance. The broadest range of pH tolerance was observed in Shigella sp. GCP5 that could tolerate a pH range of 3-13. On the contrary, Rhodococcus sp. GG48 showed smallest range of pH tolerance from 7-10. Genome mining of GCP5 showed that tolerance of acidic environment was due to presence of a periplasmic protein HDEA in its genome that supports acid resistance in pathogenic enteric bacteria. In the context of high pH, alkali tolerant isolates are expected to manage their metabolism through various strategies, including the proton transport system, enzymes such as proteases, lipases, cellulases, H+ coupled ion-transport systems, F0F1 ATPases, and transport systems that coordinate H+ transport with other solutes. Genes encoding distinct subunits of Na+/H+ antiporters and F0F1 ATPases were disclosed in the genome of all six isolates. Antibiotic resistance profiling of all six gut isolates showed that only Shigella sp. GCP5 has a broad spectrum of antibiotic resistance that includes monobactam, penicillin and beta lactam combination agents, ceftriaxone, erythromycin, imipenem and meropenem. A heavy metal resistance profiling was done for these isolates which showed a broad range of resistance that was distinct for all isolates. Genome mining of the gut isolates showed presence of different sets of heavy metal transportation systems. Third objective was focused on response of gut bacteria of gill-intesinal breather L. guntea during the hypoxic stress and comparison of this response with the changes of gut microbiota of a sole gill-breather fish Cirrhinus mrigala. Hypoxia is one of the main risks to fish health in an aquatic environment. High-throughput sequencing was used to examine the anterior and posterior guts of L. guntea in both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. According to the community profiling, prolonged exposure to hypoxia increased the diversity and abundance of bacteria in the posterior gut while decreasing both in the anterior gut. Additionally, the anterior and posterior gut's core microbiota showed a significant alteration during hypoxia. Comparative analyses showed that, hypoxia causes more pronounced alterations in the posterior gut bacteria than the anterior gut at various taxonomic levels. As a consequence of hypoxia, several pathogen populations were replaced by potential opportunistic pathogens. A surge in probiotic genera was also seen along with the shift in the pathogenic bacterial population. Similarly, comparison of gut microbiota of Cirrhinus mrigala was performed. As dissolved oxygen levels (DO2) decreased from 7±0.5 mg/L to 0.5±0.07 mg/L, a substantial shift was observed in the abundance and diversity of the bacterial population inhabiting the fish gut. The alpha diversity indices showed that the abundance and diversity of gut microflora increased in hypoxia as compared to normoxia. The community profiling indicates in case of hypoxia for both gut regions the number of core microbiota decreases as compared to normoxia. In hypoxic condition, the abundance of Pseudomonadota decreased in both guts while abundance of Firmicutes increased in the anterior gut but decreased in the posterior gut. With this, a rapid rise in probiotic bacteria Cetobacterium under hypoxia was observed. With this comparison of gut microbiota of Lepidocephalichthys guntea with Cirrhinus mrigala to reveal differences in the gut bacterial community during oxygen stressed environmental condition by meta-taxonomic study. The findings have illuminated a significant disparity in the composition of the gut microbiota between these twospecies. L. guntea exhibited a notably elevated microbial population within its gastrointestinal tract, accompanied by heightened levels of microbial diversity and richness as compared to C. mrigala. The fourth objective was concerned with the immune response provided by the gut immune system of L. guntea, when challenged with a pathogenic bacterium. L. guntea was experimentally infected with Aeromonas hydrophila using intraperitoneal injection followed by bath challenge, and transcriptome data were used to examine the gut immune responses during disease progression and recovery from the diseased state. For the control or uninfected fish (FGC) and the infected fish that were kept for seven days (FGE1) and fifteen days (FGE2), separate water tanks were set up. Coding DNA sequences (CDS) for FGC and FGE1, FGC and FGE2, and FGE1 and FGE2 were analyzed for differential gene expression (DGE). The presence and expression of genes involved in T cell receptor (TCR) signalling pathway, natural killer (NK) cell-mediated cytotoxicity pathway, and complement-mediated pathway, along with a large number of other immune-related proteins, and heat shock protein (HSPs) under various experimental conditions and its relationship to immune modulation of the fish gut was the primary focus of this study. Significant up-and-down regulation of these pathways shows that, in FGE1, the fish's innate immune system was engaged, whereas in FGE2, the majority of innate immune mechanisms were repressed, and adaptive immunity was activated. Expression of genes related to the immune system and heat-shock proteins was induced during this host's immunological response, and this information was then used to build a thorough network relating to immunity and the heat-shock response. This is the first study to examine the relationship between pathogenic bacterial infection, disease reversal, and modification of innate and adaptive immunity as well as heat shock response.
Open Access
Crime and criminal behavior among the youth : A sociological study
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Singha, Bappi; Biswas, Saswati
The sociological approach gives a way to look at the issue of youth crime, which is distinctive from other disciplinary approaches. Considering its multidimensional character, explanations, and interpretations that have emerged from different disciplines, the present study delves further with the sociological lens and tries to interpret it accordingly. The changing ideas, values, and changes in the various formal and informal institutions have resulted in increasing crime rates worldwide. Unprecedented and unanticipated dimensions of criminality extend the extensive scope of research on youth crime and its behavioral aspects. Thus, the present study also signifies its behavioral aspect, which has a sociocultural base and deserves examination accordingly. Therefore, the definitional aspect of the phenomenon itself has emerged in several ways, and the parallel growth of the theoretical dimensions has paved the way for multifaced interpretation. Youth is a significant social category; their behavioral manifestations are based upon a distinct set of contextualizations that may not be similar to other social categories. It becomes more versatile when we are to examine their criminal behavior. However, the sociological analysis broadly examines youth crime from two aspects and all the major explanations can be categorized under it. First is the structural perspective, which emphasizes the larger social structure where youth crime occurs. It also raises the question about changes in the structure that result in crime and criminality. The other is the processual perspective, enquiring about how and why youth engage in different crimes and criminal behavior. The whole set of concerned theoretical traditions has developed accordingly. The emergence of ecological and sociological approaches has brought challenges to many conventional approaches that focus exclusively on biological and psychological factors. It was the primary turning point that directed the discourse towards social and sociological consideration. Gradually, the inception of structural explanation derived from the classical work of E.H Sutherland (1949), which attempts to illustrate the interrelation between crime and occupational framework, and the concepts of occupational crime, white collar crime, or corporate crime have evolved. It is based on a class approach to crime and criminality, reflecting the structural disposition through status and occupation. It has achieved more elaboration with the experiment of John Hagan (1988) in his work on structural criminology, which examines the existence of power in the phenomenon of crime and criminality. The control approach developed by Hirschi (1960) expresses concerns about the behavioral consequences of individuals influenced by power relationship ties with institutions. Moreover, several other experimentations developed by scholars like Brown (2018) and Muncie (2004) have opened multiple dimensions to look into the issue. However, the present study explores such orientation to understand the contextualization of youth crime and criminal behavior in Indian society. The diversity of the Indian social structure, which has multiple grounds for stratification, represents a complex existence in terms of caste, class, and gender, and the study has considered these to uncover the hidden reality. These provide specific grounds for social values, moralities, and rationalities that guide an individual's social life within the particular social structure. It results in distinct attitudes and behavioral patterns often confronting each other's interests, eventually extending and intensifying the scope of deviance, crime, and criminality. (e.g., riots, ethnic violence, etc.). The development of sociological tradition has brought the functional interpretation in examining such context, which may be understood by the work of Durkheim and Merton. Contemporarily, the conflict approach and Marxist tradition also became very significant, and the later development in modern theoretical tradition has led this into a more multidimensional character. Gradually, these classical approaches have been extended and replaced by several advancements in the field with newer approaches. The whole set of subcultural explanations developed by William F. Whyte's work Street Corner Society and Albert Cohen's work on Delinquent Boys added a distinct dimension to the issue of youth crime. Moreover, from the very interactionist perspective, the emergence of imitation, labeling, and control theories enriched the examination to another level. More specifically, the inclusion of feminist and postmodern approaches has enabled us to micro-analyze the phenomena that have become heavily significant in the present theoretical evolution dealing with the phenomena. Thus, based on the review of earlier works, the present study tries to locate the field within these theoretical rhizomes where the inclusion of multiple theories regarding both epistemology and methodology remains necessary. In categorizing the earlier works, the study finds that it majorly tries to analyze youth crime and criminal behavior as the individual outcome or the outcome of physical and social surroundings at a macro level. Such orientation overlooks many contexts that remain significant at the micro level and can heavily influence the reality that conditions youth crime. In hypothesizing and testifying the fact, the present study stresses analyzing the contextualization of power and the state's involvement in youth criminality. The outcome of such effort remains significant and helps theorize the nature and characteristics of youth criminality. In contemporary scenarios, many dimensions of youth crime are directly and indirectly influenced and conditioned by the state and its governance. The present study analyzes the role of the state in drug- related crimes, which prevail among youth in the study area. Youth's behavioral representation through illicit drug addiction and dealing provides the scope of governance and thus validates the involvement of the state in it. At the same time, the state also facilitates and sponsors many contexts that seduce youths into criminality. It results in producing the context of criminalization and deviance and criminals. The critical approach signifies the importance of class in its examination where the drug behavior, addiction, and relevant crime and criminality of youth are influenced. In such a way, we see a process of translating drugs into deviance and criminality that intensifies the political economy of the state. Thus, the state has two strands that promote youth criminality: state-facilitated and state-sponsored contexts of youth criminality. The present study has extended this framework to analyze the governmentality of the state through producing and reproducing the crime context to youth. In such circumstances, the examination of gender in youth criminality remains very crucial and necessary for the time. The study explores that the criminalization of genders in present times has become an unavoidable apparatus of the state's governance mechanism. Bringing more populations under the filtration of crime and criminality enables the inclusion of many people into control whose behavior remained liberated traditionally. Moreover, the categorization of crime and criminality materializes the masculinization and feminization of certain specific crimes that orients the contexts of youth crime socioculturally. The present study explores the contextualization of sex crime in young women's bodies, which has become normalized as well as institutionalized. It is found that the intimacy of state and patriarchy has created the ground of governing through criminality, especially through youth crime. Thus, the evolvement of 'gendered crime and criminality' and the 'criminalization of gender' takes place in contemporary times. However, the study has found a critical context in the conventional gender-based crime approach and also in the crime-based gender approach, where, in both cases, inequality persists in determining crime and criminal behavior. Moreover, it examines how the gender structure itself includes crime and criminality to establish and validate the unequal power relations in social stratification to regulate individuals. In such a context, inequality is not only executed with the male and female binary; moreover, the gender structure has also been reshaped and reformed in a way that all populations can be brought under its order. Thereby, the inclusion of LGBTQ+ (the rainbow community) people into the dominant gender structure has extended the field of power and politics and also contextualizes the scope of governing through crime and criminality (Simon 2007). In analyzing the pattern and context of cybercrime among youth, the study tries to dissect the sociocultural consideration of cyberspace. It explores the process through which such spaces have reproduced the social inequality that often conditions the context of crime and criminality. The rationalization of the cyber industry has resulted in producing the cyber surplus value where youths are being exploited. Being the prosumer, this eventually creates the ground of disappointment, frustration, anger, violence, and deviant behavior among youth. Moreover, the study explores the inmates' living conditions and the prison culture. It has examined the multifaced dimensions of prison living mates and also focuses on the understanding of victimization. After examining all issues, the present study may conclude that the analysis of youth crime, which traditionally finds youth as guilty in analyzing their criminality, is not the pertinent explanation. Instead, it is the social structure that has multiple sociocultural grounds for magnifying more and more youths in crime and criminality. The criminal behavior of youth is not innate; neither is it the result of learning circumstances through socialization as much as it claims in several theoretical approaches. Rather, it is more the outcome of sociocultural contexts that remain embedded into the social structure. Moreover, in present times, the intention of the state and operating governmentality through exercising youth crime as a means of controlling citizens has opened up another layer of youth oppression. Youth crime is a means of governance, and thus, it would not be wrong to state that doing youth crime in present times is more doing youth victimization. Therefore, it enables a fertile sociocultural context to produce and reproduce the passive citizen.
Open Access
Western Medicine and Public Health Services in Jalpaiguri ( 1866 to 1947)
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Sarkar, Monoranjan; Bhattacharya, Dahlia
cultural fixities of the victims. Acceptance of inhabitants' people's responses and reactions to the Western health system will be discussed. Establishing quarantines was the first expected reaction of the British administration during this epidemic. Special attention was paid to boats atTiving from cholera-infected areas. Both the land and waterways were also important in the colonial health and medicine history of Jalpaigun. Overland outposts were arranged with procedures and procurement of health sanitary systems. At the same time quarantine measmes in Jalpaiguri were designed to prevent the entry of cholera into the region through waterways because more people relied on water transport than overland routes. To guarantee control, all water systems that led to the town and villages were under the supervision of the authorities. Time, however. proved the ineffectiveness of quarantines. Finally, the chapter Medical Practitioners, Midwives, and Nurse.'i examines the activities of medical practitioners both locals and European. The indigenous dai system and a brief discussion on the Midwife's role in Jalpaiguri have been included in this chapter. The trained midwives were in great demand and were often hired by hospitals, nursing homes, municipalities, and health centers when necessary. In Jalpaiguri one of the most important institutions for training nurses and midwifery was Ramkrishna Ashram. Such training centers were attached to the Hospital in Jalpaiguri. These more experienced nurses played an important role in the spread of the Western medical system in Jalpaiguri. The last part of the thesis includes the observations and concluding remarks.
Open Access
Prisons in colonial North Bengal : a study of control, discipline and punishment (1773-1947)
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Paul, Madhusudan; Bhattacharya, Dahlia
Imprisonment and development of Prisons as a penal institution under the British Raj were a significant addition in the criminal justice system of colonial India. Coming of a new administration of justice in India and consequently its extension in North Bengal, even more precisely after the creation of Nh Bengal for colonial interest due to its flourishing trade and security purposes was a result of the British Rule. North Bengal has a long history of administrative changes; and in the formative years of colonial administration the northern part of Bengal had witnessed widespread crime and criminal activities in varied forms. The British government was determined to put down offences against property, individual life and ensure public safety to create a political and administrative environment conducive to trade and investment and to maximize revenue extraction. Therefore. it became an objective necessity from the colonial viewpoint to codify the law. create a colonial police force as a legitimate instrument of coercion, reform of the court of justice from top to bottom and renovate the rudimentary prison network; that enabled the devices of control to prevent crime and lo force the law and order in this portion of the country. Prison's history as a whole has been in existence since the days of state power in making. We have references of prison in ancient literature like the Arthshastra, the provisions for punishment in the Smrities and in the Islamic laws. The 'Karagar of Kamsa' i.e. Jail of Kamsa where Srikrishna was born is a strong evidence of existence of prison in ancient India. Still, it is to be admitted; well organised prison system had taken much time to evolve. With the advent of the British. there came a wind of change in lndia, particularly in Bengal. The 18th century gave a clear indication of change that was to come in the following years. Many changes took place in the country taking into account the revenue system, judicial system, and legal system and penal system. The Supreme Court was set in 1774. The Supreme Court pointed to the climax of a new legal system which would contain the imperiaI rule and act as safeguard against external corrosions. On the contrary, in colonial India, especially in Bengal, increasing rural violence in the late eighteenth century served as provocation for the major changes in the mode of punishment instead of basic criminal laws. Their own experiences at home defined their perceptions of crime in India. Similarly, the process of the criminalization in colonial lndia was prompted by the urgent need to generate greater social discipline in the subject society as without such order, revenue collection, trade and administrative control would be disturbed. All these led to the authorities tinding no alternative other than adoption of imprisonment as the pr􀄵cautionary of the first resort to cope up with such crimes, criminals and violence. Instead of prisons, penal settlements, home arrest, in the 1930s the authority needed detention camps on the eve of disobedience of salt law and civil disobedience movements, along with the extensiveness and popularity of revolutionary movements. However, with the consolidation of the British power and advent of western thoughts the people of the land could feel a trend of change in different aspects of their day-to-day life. For the British the prison was an institution symbolic of order and civility. The prison was for them not just a system to preserve and reform the criminals but to make the colonized country realize the political presence of the authority. Thus. the history of prisons in colonial North Bengal and its control, punishment and discipline clearly emerges as a significant area of study. Recently such studies are given importance in history and hence this dissertation. In this dissertation, the present scholar has made a modest attempt to explore the history of the prison of the districts of the Bengal hitherto academically not dealt with. As a whole thorough study on differential natures and a combination of multiple factors of police, judicial and prison administrations will help us to decipher the nature of British colonial policy and how they consolidated their rule in this particular region. So, the present work may be considered to a new addition to the domain of knowledge in regards to colonial North Bengal.
Open Access
Biochemical and molecular charactarization of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms isolated from tea plantation soil of Darjeeling hills
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Saha, Sumedha; Bhattacharya, Malay
Phosphorous (P) is one of the most abundant metallic element found in the earth’s crust and is present in soils in both organic and inorganic forms. Though it is present in high concentration, only 0.1% of the total phosphorus is available to plants because of poor solubility and its fixation with other metallic elements in the soil such as calcium, aluminium and iron to form calcium phosphate, aluminium phosphate, and ferrous phosphate and thus becomes unavailable to plants. It is one of the major essential macronutrients for plant biological growth and development. Phosphorous in soil is mainly found as mineral or organic phosphorous, which is insoluble and unavailable to plants. Releasing this phosphorous in soluble form is very important in increasing plant growth and plant product yields. The tremendous application of chemical-based phosphorus fertilizers has a long-term impact on the environment regarding eutrophication, soil fertility depletion, and carbon footprint. This attitude has compelled the scientific community to find a sustainable approach for efficient P availability in agriculture to meet the ever-growing demand for food. Using efficient PSM (phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms) opens up a new horizon for better crop productivity and greater yield performance without affecting soil health. Microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, play a central role in the natural phosphorus cycle and convert insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible form, which is an important trait for the growth and survival of plants. Considering the importance of Darjeeling tea and the effect it has on the tea industry of India, this region, along with its biotope, became the perfect study area. Though a few studies have been conducted targeting the broad range of microflora of the tea gardens in Darjeeling, a thorough study of this beneficial group of phosphate solubilizers in the region and a detailed investigation of their properties and potential remains unearthed. Subsequently, twenty-four phosphate-solubilizing microorganism consortia were isolated, covering various organic and inorganic tea gardens, which was followed by the isolation of eight phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSMR 2.1, PSMR 5.3, PSMR 5.6, PSMR 5.7, PSMR 5.12, PSMR 5.15, PSMR 6.2.9 and PSMR 6.4.3) and were identified based on the DNA sequencing of their 16S rRNA region. PSMR 2.1 was identified as Brucella pseudogrignonensis, PSMR 5.3 as Achromobacter xylosoxidans, PSMR 5.6 as Staphylococcus hominis, PSMR 5.7 as Rothia kristinae, PSMR 5.12 as Staphylococcus hominis, PSMR 5.15 as Proteus vulgaris, PSMR 6.2.9 as Brevundimonas diminuta and PSMR 6.4.3 as Bacillus licheniformis. Apart from phosphate solubilization, most of the PSMs also possess other plant growth-promoting abilities such as complex nitrate reduction, ammonia production, auxins such as indole acetic acid (IAA) production, siderophore production for sequestering beneficial elements such as iron and hydrogen cyanide production that is responsible for disease resistance. Each of these, through various mechanisms, helps in the healthy growth and development of plants, increasing the gross yield. Thus, PSMs exhibiting any or all of these properties naturally step up to become a great contender for the application process in fields. When pure bacterial cultures of phosphate solubilizers were investigated for their plant growth promotion activities, all isolates exhibited one or the other property. However, PSMR 5.3, identified as Achromobacter xylosoxidans, expressed all the properties except for hydrogen cyanide production in in vitro conditions. Pre-treated seeds with the isolated phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) also displayed enhanced germination rate, thus demonstrating the positive effect of these isolates on the growth of plants starting from their seed stage. When tested in in vivo conditions, the bacterial isolates had a persistent positive effect on the growth and development of the plants as compared to the untreated control plant with a significant difference. To further confirm its potential as a plant growth regulator, all eight phosphate solubilizing bacterial isolates were studied for their production of secondary metabolites through GC-MS analysis. The majority of the compounds produced by the isolates were found to have direct or indirect roles in plant growth regulation with a significant percentage of area coverage. The isolate Rothia kristinae PSMR 5.7 revealed that all the secondary metabolite compounds produced played direct or indirect role in the plant growth. The metabolites also confirmed their result in vitro plant growth promoting experiments, thus establishing their worth as candidates for agronomic use. In the present era, human intervention and exploitation of resources have led to serious alterations in the natural balance of nature, which is met head-on by the microbial community. Where many fail to cope with the changes and the stress introduced, some successfully modify themselves to cope with their surroundings and emerge as tolerant strains against the posed stress factors. Tea plantations, another face of agricultural practice, meet with a similar fate of unbridled usage of pesticides with toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. Thereupon, when faced with a challenge the microbes of the region modify their genetic makeup through selective adaptation and become tolerant or resistant depending on the rate and extent of contamination. Considering the potential of this ability, their tolerance pattern against high concentrations of pesticides and heavy metals was traced only to reveal extreme levels of tolerance by both the consortia and the pure bacterial cultures of phosphate solubilizers. Isolates like PSMR 5.3 and PSMR 5.7 also demonstrated complete resistance against pesticides like flubendiamide, thiamethoxam, and emamectin benzoate, which had never been reported before. Even with such high tolerance against the xenobiotics the isolated phosphate solubilizing bacteria were found to be mostly susceptible to the range of clinical antibiotics employed in this study. The enhanced tolerance of the bacterial isolates and consortia may be portrayed as a trump card in situations where reclamation of biodegraded land is in question along with the plant growth regulation property of these phosphate solubilizers. Therefore, high phosphate solubility coupled with extreme tolerance to various stress factors, without the risk of pathogenicity, raises the chances of these bacterial isolates to harness their abilities and probably commercialize them in the near future.
Open Access
Participatory democracy and grassroots governance in India : a study of the nature of people's participation in gram sansads in Paschim Medinipur District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Lama, Budh Bahadur; Chakrabarti, Dyutis
Dissatisfaction results from representatives acting more in accordance with party choices than with the will of the people, rather than from a lack of consistency between public aspirations and deeds. Such situations have led to the demand of popular participation in the decision making and gained a popular acceptance. Jn this context 'participatory democracy' has emerged in an attempt to recapture people's power to determine their own fate and to correct the inadequacies of representative democracy. From this point view, paticipation is democracy. The idea of participatory democracy bas been encouraged in India by guaranteeing a constitutional status (73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992) to the local level institutions including Gram Sabha. One of the most important provisions of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment is setting up of Gram Sabha in the lower tier of Panchayats, known as Gram Panchayat with the adult citizens of concerned areas to ensure direct participation of ordinary rural people in local governance. Therefore, the title of the study is 'Participatory Democracy and Grassroots Governance in India: A Study of the Nature of People's Participation in Gram Sansads of Paschim Medinipur District, West Bengal' divided into seven following Gram Sansads of Paschim Medinipur District, West Bengal' divided into seven following chapters: Chapter I: Introduction This chapter consists of the statement of the problem, review of literature, objectives of the study, research questions, methodological premises, chapterisation and rationale of the study. tudy. Statement of the problem West Bengal is one of the pioneer states in India to experiment the pancbayats as governing bodies at the village level since independence and particularly after 1977. West Bengal has tried invariably to extend the process of democratic decentralisation beyond the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA). So, it has taken a step forward by making the provision for Gram Sansad apart from Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha is constituted at Gram Panchayat level and Gram Sansad at each electoral constituency or 'booth' level with all voters of the concerned constituency. By introducing Gram Sansad, it is assumed that, unlike a huge Gram Sabha with a large size population, this relatively smaUer unit will enhance the prospect of people's participation and create a truly decentralised local governing body. Ln fact, Gram Sansad is the lowest unit of the entire system of rural local self-government in West Bengal. It is the 'real soul' of village democracy. Tt is a system where all the villagers themselves are collectively their own local affairs. So, Gram Sansad is the centre of democratic power in the village and is the centre of developmental activity. It not only strengthens the process of participatory governance but also facilitates empowerment of ordinary rural people and brings the elements of transparency, accountability and social control over panchayats. It is a platform based entirely on people's voice. It has the potential to change the noise of the people into the voice of the people. However, without active and popular participation, Gram Sansads will not be able to play its real role as designed by the policy makers in the state of West Bengal. So, the potentiality of Gram Sansad is conditioned by its length of uses in the given rural environment. Therefore, the inclusive and participatory grassroots governance is still remaining a distance dream for the ordinary villagers. At the same time, tbe usefulness of this unique structure of Gram Sansad as an effective instrument to ensure decentralized decision making and participatory local government has been questioned. It has been argued that common people are not interested in the meetings/deliberations of Gram Sansads. Majority does not attend or participate in deliberations. Often people participate in meetings only to satisfy local leaders and to increase numbers. They do not raise issues. The Sansads are actuaUy guided and controlled by a small group of local leaders or a local oligarchy. fn this context, it is necessary to examine the actual functioning of Gram Sansads to capture the nature of participatory institutions oflndia's Panchayati Raj system. Whether the institutions and structures created to ensure decentralised decisions and participatory democracy, are gradually becoming only theoretical or procedural and instruments in the hands oflocal elites, is a matter that needs attention. Therefore, to probe this point, the focus of present study is on nature of participation in Gram Sansads in West Bengal, in this case particularly, Paschim Medinipur district. Objectives of the Study The chief objective of the study has been to investigate the basic issue: How far have the Gram Sansads been able to emerge at the local (village) level as an effective arrangement that ensure participatory government in villages? Or are the Sansads just another ornamental arrangement? The point is investigated in Paschim Medinipur district. There are some specific objectives or sub-objectives which try to realise main objective: 1. To study how far the objectives of Gram Panchayats as laid down by the West Bengal Panchayat (Amendment) Acts 1994 and 2003, have been implemented and achieved in Paschim Medinipur; and to examine the powers and functions of Gram Sansad in Paschirn Medinipur district. 2. To explore the nature of people's participation in Gram Sansads in Paschim Medinipur with regard to decision-making and deliberation. 3. To examine the roles of political parties in strengthening the process of people's participation in Gram Sansads in Paschim Medinipur district. Research questions There are few major research questions which are as follows. 1. ls Gram Sansad strong enough to raise the voice of the ordinary rural people in Paschim Medinipur district? 2. Do all the people fully participate in the process of governance at the Sansad level in Paschim Medinipur district? 3. Are the Gram Sabhas/Gram Sansads decision-making bodies in Paschim Medinipur district? 4. Whether Gram Panchayats are politically biased in Paschim Medinipur district? Study area and Research methods The study focuses on the Gram Sansads of the Paschim Medinipur district which is situated in tbe south-west comer of West Bengal and is adjacent to the State of Odisha in its south-west. Paschim Medinipur district was created in 2002 by bifurcating the erstwhile Midnapore district. Later, in 2017 a new Jhargram district has been created out of the western part of Paschim Medinipur district. The present work which was started before 2017, however, includes one block from the newly created Jhargram district. As per the Government of West Bengal report 2011, Paschim Medinipur district consists of 4 Subdivisions, 29 Blocks, 29 Panchayat Samitis, 290 Gram Pancbayats and 3086 Gram Sansads. But at present the district has only 3 Subdivisions. The present study being theoretical and empirical in nature has followed the review of literatures and survey methods. So, keeping in mind a fair representation of people, 20 Gram Sansads have been selected for the field study on the basis of following criteria. (i) advanced Gram Sansads and backward Gram Sansads based on poverty and human development; (ii) Gram Sansads dominated by general caste, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and Women; (iii) one party dominated Gram Sansads by Ruling party or Opposition, Gram Sansads changing hands (competitive), and Gram Sansads with no clear domination (fragmented); (iv) Gram Sansads which achieved targets and failed to achieve targets. In addition, 400 hundred villager respondents, 40 elected panchayat members, 20 party leaders from different political parties and 5 government officials including Block Development Officer (BOO) have been interviewed during the field visit. Chapter Tl: Towards Participatory Governance in India: The Evolution of Panchayati Raj Institutions Jt outlines the history of evolution of PRls in pre-independent and post-independent India. The local government may be understood as an institutional arrangement to create locally elected democratic bodies essentially accountable to the local people. The term 'participatory governance' refers to a system which includes a set of grassroots organisations such as local self-government, civil society organisations, local functional groups, and even influential individuals. Therefore, the form of grassroots democracy in India refers primarily to the constitutional provisions of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act and the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act and the emerging role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRls) and Nagar Palika Institutions (NPls). Panchayati Raj is a system and process of governance at the village level. Local government is not a new phenomenon in India. Panchayat acted as a mechanism to administer justice, to settle down disputes, and to solve the day-to-day problem. It was regarded as the fundamental unit of administration and justice. The system existed in the Vedic period and is still continuing to function on the principles of decentralisation and people's participation in the decision making at the local level even after having facing lot of challenges. History of evolution of Panchayati Raj Institutions tells us that panchayats in India had to go through difficulties and complexities to reach the level where it is accepted as one of the vibrant democratic local governments in the history of grassroots governance. Gram pancbayats are the doorstep government of the people. It is really a people's government. Gram Sabha as a plate form for participation ensures people's participation in the process of decision-making and formulation of development plan at the grassroots level. People of the villages can directly participate in the system of governance. Chapter III: Gram Panchayats in West Bengal: Historical Evolution and People's Participation This chapter provides a detail about the experiments and experiences ofrural local selfgovernment in West Bengal. The chapter starts with a brief profile of West Bengal followed by the discussion on Gram Panchayats and people's participation in West Bengal with a time framework ( 1870- 1977). The chapter also contains analysis oft he feanires of tbe West Bengal Pancbayat Act of 1973 and highlights the importance of the Act of 1973 in the following stages of the rural governance in West Bengal. The chapter also discusses about the role of Gram Panchayats and the nature of People's Participation in local affairs during the Left Front regime in West Bengal; describes the position of Gram Sabha/Gram Sansad in the post-73rd Constitutional Amendment scenario; discusses the power and functions of Gram Panchayat and the natme of People's Panicipation in West Bengal in the context of present Scenario; highlights the Participatory [nitiatives and Innovations in Panchayat System in West Bengal. Chapter IV: Rural Local Self-Government in Paschim Medinipur district during Left Front Goverome-nt: Structure, Functions and people' participation Jt covers the nature of policies, institutional structures, strategies and process of people's participation in PRis under Left Front government in Paschim MedinipU1· district. The chapter begins with a brief introduction of the district undertaken for the study and it also includes the analytical aspects on the role of Rural Local Self-Government during the Left Front regime; discusses the Strnctures of the Gram Panchayats in Paschim Medinipur Ojstrict; shows the Functional difficulties and bureaucratic supremacy faced by Gram Panchayats during the Left Regime; discusses the Dominance of Party in the three-tiers of Panchayat System; examines the nature of People's Participation in the Activities of Gram Panchayats and a brief profile of Paschim Medinipur District Today. Chapter V: Nature and Extent of People's Participation in the Gram Sansads in Paschim M edinipur district This chapter contains the various tables of data. collected from the field along with data analyses. This chapter also contains the determinants of people's participation in village governance in Pasch.im Medinipur district and the characterisation of the concept of people's participation on the basis of attending meetings, raising voices on various local issues and providing comments and contributions being made by the ordinary rural people in the context local affairs. The chapter includes the socio-economic and political level of consciousness of 400 vii !age respondents (200 male and 200 female); 40 elected members of Gram Panchayats; 20 local political leaders f om different parties; and 05 government officials including BDO. Chapter VI: Power to the Gram Sansad: Awareness of Elected Panchayat Members, Local Party Leaders and Government Officials It explores the views of all the stakeholders towards whether the Gram Sansad as a participatory institution at the grassroots level in Pascbim Medinipur district or not. The chapter also includes various questions and responses of all the respondents that detennine their perceptions and awareness of the potentiality of the Gram Sansads in the district. Power to people and its enemies seems to be relatively true in connection to enabling Gram Sansads in the district. Similarly, the roles played by the elected members, local pary leaders and government officials are not encouraging in regard to evolve the Gram Sansad as a real decision-making body, participatory and deliberative village assembly in Paschim Medinipur district, West Bengal. Chapter VII: Conclusion It figures out the major findings of the research work and recommends Gram Sansad as a direct participatory democratic grassroots institution in Paschim Medinipur district in particular and in the state of West Bengal in general. Major Findings It must be mentioned that the institution of Gram Sansad provides the way of direct participation lo the villagers in the affairs of Panchayat. Gram Sansad has provided the scope for participation of ordinary rnral people in the decision-making process. Gram Sansad at the constituency level gives sufficient opportunity to the villagers to empower themselves through participation. The ideas of villagers are partly reproduced in the actions of Gram Panchayat. However, Gram Sansad is able to decrease the traditional 'patron-client relationshjp' at the village level. But in reality, Gram Sansad has been made to go about as a remote-controlled establishment by the ruling elites. This all-inescapable controlling demeanour is an impediment to develop the participatory political culture in rural society of Paschirn Medinipur. The study found that the majority of villagers do not attend Panchayat meetings and do not participate -in decisionmaking process and in the process of implementation of development programmes even at the Gram Sansad level. Few villagers who have attended the Sansad meetings with no voice or the participate the meetings as a proxy and take all the decisions. It is also found that most of these elected members are not having any knowledge about the Gram Panchayat manuals, their rights, their responsibilities. development work, old Panchayat Acts, 73rd Amendment Act and State Panchayat Act and the others due to many reasons like poor economic background, guided by party leaders. lack of proper education, lack of exposure to the world outside, lack of proper training for doing panchayat activities, lack of capacity building programmes, etc. Large number of villagers have not attended the Gram Sansad meetings. Villagers remain silent and submissive to the ruling party as they know their opinions are hardly be accepted in themeetings. No free and friendly environment for the ordinary villagers in the Gram Sansad meetings. A fear-psychosis continues in their minds if they stand for anti-ruling elites. It is found that Gram Sansad is not strong enough to raise the voices of the ordinary villagers and it is not a real decision-making body at the Sansad level. The villagers believed that Gram Sansad does not have the sufficient autonomy to take the decisions of its own due to inadequate devolution of freedom, funds, functions and functionaries. These limitations have curtailed the vertical and horizontal potential expansion of Gram Sansad as a self-governing grassroots unit at the Sansad level. So. it is unable to function as a participatory decentralized body at the Sansad level. The list of recipients of development schemes is prepared before the Gram Sansad meetings by the rural dominants. And these lists of recipients are brought by them in the Gram Sansad meetings for approval only. Indeed, negligible individuals' involvement in the Sansad 's decision-making process is not so helpful lo bring about revolutionary changes in the existing hierarchical power structure. There is no such advancement in the process of people's participation in Gram Sansad affairs and no breakthrough in the process of power devolution to Gram Sansad even after the shift in power in the State in 2011 and subsequently in the district in 2013. Rather the Grassroots self-governing institutions like Gram Sansad and Gram Unnayan Samiti are becoming weak in the areas of 4Fs (Fund, Functions, Functionaries and Freedom) under this new regime. So, as a maner of fact, the importance of institution is getting declined. People have already started attending party called meeting instead of attending Sansad meetings. The present government of West Bengal is more focused on increasing the power of rural bureaucracy instead of strengthening the elected Panchayat members capable to delivery services to the people at the village level. So, villagers are being pushed on by the State to become dependent entities on rural bureaucrats. Here villagers have to depend upon two power elites - bureaucrats and party leaders. This culture of dependency has further weakened people's body even at the Sansad level. However, villagers are still having confidence that Gram Sansad has the power to enable the villagers to fi-ame their lives as per their desires. In fact, Gram Sansad has enonnous prospect in escalating the human abilities in local self-government in Paschim Medinipur district. To conclude, Gram Sansad has the ability to emerge at the village level as an effective arrangement that ensure participatory government in villages. This can be a reality only wheo each villagers including the poorest of the poor will be recognised with dignity and given the equal share of influential engagement in Sansad affairs. And Gram Sansads should be kept free from all kinds of restraints like political, social, economy, cultural, religious, etc. Otherwise, the Gram Sansad continues to be an ornamental arrangement in the political landscape of rural Bengal. The study also recommends that lhere should be least intervention of the political party in the effective and efficient functioning of the Gram Sansads in West Bengal particularly in Paschim Medinipur district. The role of party cannot be totally ignored in the existing system of electoral politics. fn fact, the political pa1iy can play a role catalyst to bring all the villagers including poorest of the poor into a common platform in which the culture of collectivism, belief on communal harmony, respect to diversity, community development. social justice, social responsibility, etc. may get the extra mileage. The sense of belonging to community rule with multi-cultural values at the Sansad level may lead to devalue the role of rural party oligarchy in the decision-making process and deliberative democratic system in West Bengal particularly in Paschim Medinipur.India
Open Access
Bratyo Basur natyokriti : swatantratar sandhane (1996-2015) ব্রাত্য বসুর নাট্যকৃতি : স্বাতন্ত্রতার সন্ধানে (১৯৯৬ -২০১৫)
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Biswas বিশ্বাস, Debalina দেবলীনা; Roy রায়, Nikhilchandra নিখিলচন্দ্র
Open Access
Shat-sottor dashoker bangla chhotogalpo: prasanga astitter larai সাত -সত্তর দশকের বাংলা ছোটগল্প : প্রসঙ্গ অস্তিত্বের লড়াই
(University of North Bengal, 2024) Mandal মণ্ডল, Monab মোনাব; Khatun খাতুন, Hasnara হাসিনার

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