INTRODUCTION 

The primitive inhabitants of India are known as the Adivasis. From· 

time immemorial a great human race had been living in this vast country, 

but to day they are being neglected in their own land. 1 it's a pity that, the 

infiltrators are now thinking about the preservation of their rights. They 

are indeed the original residents of pre-Aryan India. Owing to the Aryan 

invasion and Aryan settlements, they were driven out of their homestead 

and had to take shelter in woods and forests, hills and mountains. But it 

was a boon in disguise. As they were not influenced by the Aryan 

civilisation, they did not change, and could maintain their own uniqueness. 

That is why till today a distinct cultural stream can be seen flowing through 

their rituals, customs and lifestyle. 2 But according to the narrow out look 

of present day socio-economic infrastructure, they are considered to be 

backward community hence the term Adivasi is quite appropriate for 

them. 

The opinions of the anthropologists are: 

· Dr. Rivers said- "They belong to such a class of society who have no 

complexity in their lives, who speak some language, who have similarity 

in form, who have 'Panchayat' for law and order, and in necessary who 

come forward with a class consciousness to fight or revolt.'13 

Piddington comments - "They are the members of such a group 

who speak the same language, occupy the same land, and have 

homogeneity in their cultural life."4 

According to Prof. Dhirendranath Majumder - the aboriginal society 



2 

is the collection of a few families or a family of the same tribes who have 

similarity in their names, live in a particular region, use the same language, 

follow the same religious norms in profession and marriage and have a 

co-ordination among themselves. 5 These definitions uphold the basic 

·Characteristics of the aboriginal populace. In fact there is no hard and fast 

rule that, they will always live in the same region. There are many who 

roam like nomads and change their habitat very often. However, the 

aboriginals are primitive, but the tag "Adivasi" is not at all primitive. As 

far as can be traced, Thakkar Bapa first coined this phrase, later Gandhiji 

started using the name. It is being used as the synonym of the English 

word 'tribe'. Terms like 'upajati', 'khandajati' or 'janajati' are also in use by 

many people. So the topic needs a little discussion. It seems, the word 

'tribe' can reveal all the specialities of the oldest generation very precisely, 

but these words cannot do that. First let us take the word 'Adivasi'; their 

expression is in a sense vague because if we say "they are the oldest 

resident of this village' we do not mean the original residents, but point 

out to the people who had been living there from the time when the 

village was set up. Moreover, during the Left Front regime the West Bengal 

Government has started using the word 'upajati' in a broader sense, and 

opened 'Upajati Cultural Centre' in Jhargram and Suri.6 But the term 'upa' 

is use to show humble in rank and the word 'upajati' is like tributary quite 

separate from the main stream. It is not fair to say that the oldest people 

are separate from the greater human society of the country. It is the 

aboriginals who are the root of the society. From ages· they have been 

following a typical social structure, and till today they are distinct in their 

own culture and characteristics. The coined phrases, which cannot give 



3 

the complete identity of a human race, should not be supported and 

hence should be put aside. These aboriginals, in order to protect their 

entity lagged behind and were victimised by the country's socio-economic 

system and came to be known as 'Adivasis' in course of time. The 

anthropologists and educationists should check out this subject. Any way, 

the word 'Adivasi' although vague is n9t that much offensive, so we will 

use this word in our discussion. 

The aboriginals are divided into three groups according to their 

physical stature, Facial-cut etc. 7 

1. Negroito - Negroitos are imagined to be the first and oldest inhabitants 

of India. They very much resemble with the Negroes of Africa. They 

are short, dark, thick and curly haired. Thick lipped. Their heads are 

long. Round and flat. The Kadars, Irular's of South India and the 

Jarowas and the Orgies of the Andaman belong to this group. 

2. Proto-Australoids - Proto Australoids are medium sized, dusky or 

dark, flat nosed with pressed top and curly haired. They occupy the 

whole of central, eastern and southern India. The Oraons, Mundas, 

Santals, Birhors, Kole, Bhils, Lodhas, Savars of central and eastern 

India the Chenchus, Kurmbas and Badamas of south India belong to 

this group. 

3. Mongoloids- The Mongoloids are middled sized, fair, and flat faced 

with high cheek, straight haired. They have no hair, beard or 

moustache on their body or head. Their eyes are typically Mongolian. 

The Lepchas, Toros, Kabhas Chakmas and Maghs belong to this group. 



4 

The Mongolians live in the foothills of the Himalayas. They are very 

much associated with the people of Nepal, Bhutan and China. 

The aboriginals are classified into four groups according to language: 

1. Austro-Asian Class -

People belonging to the Austro Asian language group are scattered 

over north-eastern Himalayas, central and western India and the Microbar 

Islands.8 There are differences of opinions regarding their language. The 

language the Proto-Australoid people used was called "Austroloid: which 

laid the foundation of Bengali. A number of worlds in Bengali liken bear 

witness to this truth. 'Mundari' is the main branch of this language, which 

is spoken by the Santals, Mundas, Hos, Karwar, Juangs, and Korbus and 

so on. Austric words are found in most language of India, but in Bengali 

the words are many. However, the Austro-Asiatic language is divided into 

two categories: 9 



a) Man-Khmer branch and 
Austro Asiatic Class 
Man-Khmer branch 

b) Munda branch. 

Munda branch 

5 

(Khasi, Nicoborian) (Santali, Mundari, Ho, Gadaba, Khana, 
Savar etc.) 

Again, the Mundari branch can be spread in this way. 

Munda branch 

North Munda Central Munda 
I 

South Munda Mahali(Nihali) 
I 

I I I I 
Karku Kheswari Kharia Juang Gurab, Remo Gata Sana Gorum 

Santali, Mundari, Ho 
Korwa, Birhor, Asuri 

I 

Gutak, Remo 

I 
I 

Gutab 

(Gadaba) 

I 
Sora 

(Savar) 

Gata 

Remo 

(Banda) 

2. The Dravidian language group -

I 
I 

Go ram 
(Pirenji) 

People speaking in this language live in different parts of south and 

central India. Toto Oraon, Gond, Khond etc. comes under this category. 10 

3. Sino-Tibetan language group -

People belonging to this group live in the Himalayas and are mainly 

divided into two groups: (a) Tibetan-Burmese and (b) Siamese-Chinese. 

This division is shown in the graph below. 11 



Sino-Tibetan language group 

Tibetan-Burmese 

(Lepcha, Toto, Bhutia, Abar, 

Angami, Dafla, Miri, Garo etc.) 

4. Into-Aryan language group -

Siamese Chinese 

(Lusai, Thada etc.) 

6 

Of this group live in different parts of India. Although they possess 

the same typical features like complexion, nose, lips, shape of head -

somehow or other they have forgotten their mother tongue. They speak 

in the colloquial, Indo-Aryan language or 'Sadri'. According to Grieacca, 

Sandri is a branch of Bhojpard chik, Bayaik, Bedia, Lohra, and Kharwas 

etc. are among the Indo-Aryan language group. 

Now if we divide the 38 aboriginal tribes of West Bengal according to 

language, we get the following list. 13 

a) Austra-Asiatic language group: 

1. Asur 9) Bhumij 

2. Kasmali 10) Mahali 

3. Kisan 11) Mahali 

4. Korwa 12) Munda 

5. Kora 13) Lodha, Kheria or Kharia 

6. Chero 14) Savar 

7. Nagesia 15) Santa I 

8. Birhor 16) Ho. 



7 

b) The Dravidian language group : 

1. Oraon 

2. Khond 

3. Gond 

4. Mal Pahariya 

5. Sauria Pahariya. 

c) Tibetan-Chinese language group : 

1. Garo 5. Mech 

2. Chakma 6. Mru 

3. Bhutia 7. Rabha 

(0 Kagate, Toto, Dukpa, Sherpa) 8. Lepcha 

4. Magha 9. Hajong. 

d) Indo-Aryan language group : 

1. Kharwar 5. Birjla 

2. Gorait 6. Bedia 

3. Chik Baraik 7. Baiga 

4. Parhaiya 8. Lahar Lohra. 

The plight of the aboriginals was not the same as it is today. They 

had sufficient wealth and real estate. Even refere,nce of a few kings and 

zamindars can be found in old chronicles. It is known that, in the 14th 

century A.D., Syad Ibrahim Ali alias Malik Baya who was the commander 

of Muhammad Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, invaded the fort of Champa. 

The owner of that fort, a Santal king committed suicide along with his 

whole family and Malik Baya took the possession in 1340 A.D. 14 



8 

E.T. Dalton writes about this incident: I am unable to identify the 

Ahiri-Pipri, but Khairagarh and Chai Champa one in the Hazaribagh ·or 

Ramgarh district, and to Chai-Champa remote Santals, as well as these in 

this districts frequently allude. At Chai there is an old fort, the walls of 

which of earth and stones. Enclose a space about five acres of land. The 

tradition about it is that it was the abode of Jangra, a Santal Raja, who 

destroyed himself and his family on hearing of the approach of 

Muhammadan army under General Syed Ibrahim Ali alias Malik Baya. A 

Muhammadan Officer named Hazrat Fateh Khan Duala was placed in charge 

of the fort, and on his dying there, a place of worship or 'Darga' was 

erected near his grave. There is another fort at Mangarb, four miles from 

Chai, which is also assigned by tradition to a Santal called Man Singh. He 

abandoned his fort on the aproach of the Mohammedans. At and about 

Cbai it is said that there were formerly six Santa I chiefs, three in Bihar and 

three in the Hazaribagh district". 15 

Before the British rule these people were on the whole self reliant. 

They never begged, "Neither had much demand. They lived by farming 

and collecting forest products. They perfected Barter system rather than , 

money transaction. The only things for which they had to depend on the 

outer world were salt and clothing. Some people earned their livelihood 

by making bamboo hampers palm leaf mats and thicbark lassos. However 

the British administrators made a lot of research on the life and livelihood 

of the aboriginals, but thought very little for their social and economic 

upliftment.16 On the contrary, they imposed the burden of tax and employed 

the zamindars and mahajans to exploit them. Whenever they protested 



9 

they were repressed brutally. The Chuar mutiny of 1770 and 1779, the 

Khasi mutiny of 1783, the Jath mutiny of 1809, the Bhil mutiny of 1919, 

the Kol mutini of 1831-32, the Bhumij mutiny of 1932, the Naga mutiny 

of 1839m the Khond mutiny of 1846, the Santal mutiny of 1855 and the 

Munda mutiny of 1895 beat the historical witness of this torture. As a 

result of these outbreaks, the British Government adopted a new policy 

aboutthe aboriginals and kept them aloof from the greater Indian society. 

There is no doubt that it was this "divide and rule" policy of the British 

that the aboriginal communities were deprived of all the benefits of the 

development projects. Although the administrators did not do anything 

for the social and economic prosperity of these people, they did one thing 

for their mental reformationY They allowed the Missionaries to work 

freely in the aboriginal infested areas. This had both good and bad effects. 

Three among the few Protestant Christian Missions who worked in West 

Bengal are worth mentioning. 18 

1. American Baptist Mission. 

2. Methodist Missionary Society. 

3. Church Missionary Society. 

Apart from these Roman Catholic Mission also worked in some areas. 

American Baptist Mission started working among the Santals and 

Koros of Midnapur. 

The Missionaries tried to spread education along with preaching 

Christianity. Arrangements were made to set up a High School for Santal 

boys and M.E. School for girls and a training centre for carpentry and 



10 

weaving in Bhimpur village in Midnapur. Only in this school of West Bengal, 

Santali was regularly taught and students could appear in the Matriculation 

Examination of the Calcutta University with this language. f'1any students 

came to study in this school from Midnapur. Bankura and even Singbhum 

districts of Bihar. 19 

The Methodist Missionary Society started their work in Bankura in 

1870. The Mission set up a hospital in Sarenga for the benefit of the 

Santals and other Scheduled Tribes. This hospital was provided with all 

types of facilities for the convenience of the Adivasi patients. The Church 

Missionary Society worked among the Adivasis of North Bengal. 20 

The Roman Catholic Mission worked among the Adivasis of Keshiari 

Block of Midnapur, Kalna Block of Burdwan, Habibpur and Gajol Block of 

Maida. 

It is true that these Missionary organisations served the Adivasis in 

many ways, but at the same time it cannot be denied that their society 

and culture were harmed to a great extent due to this missionary influence. 

In some areas a wall of demarcation between Christians and non-Christians 

were made and they have lost confidence in themselves. 21 



11 

References 

1. Singh K. Suresh 1972 Tribal Situation in India, Pnb. Indian Institute 

of Advanced study Rashtrapati Nivas. Shimla, p-15 

2. Horowitz, Irving L. 1956. Three words of development, New York. 

P-33 

3. Meet, C.K. 1931 Tribal studies in Northern Nigeria, Vol. II Kegon 

Peul. French Trambner and Co. Ltd. London, P-59 

4. S.C. Dube 1977 Tribal Heritage of India New Delhi: Vikas Publishing 

House Pvt. Ltd. P-2 

5. Dhirendra Nath Baskay, The Tribes of West Bengal. 

6. Vidyarathi, L.P. and Rai B.K. 1976 The Tribal Culture of India South 

Asia Books. Columbia, P-53 

7. Das, Raha, De 1990 Tribal Situation in West Bengai.KLM Publishers 

Kolkata, P-21 

8. Yojana Vol XX. Nos 1976, 13,14,15 August,P-83 

9. Dhirendra Nath Baskay, Tribes of West Bengal 

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11. Jones, Steve 1978 Tribal Underdevelopment in India Development 

and Charge, P-9 

12. Mathur, Hari, Mohan 1985 Anthropology in Government of India's 

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Library, PP-136,137 



12 

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16. Fried, Morton, H. 1968 "On the converts of Tribe and Tribal Society." 

In June Helm (ed.) Essays on the problem of Tribe. P-3 

17. Sinha Surajit 1972 "Tribal Solidarity movements in India: A Review 

in K. Suresh Singh (ed.) Tribal Situation in India, Simla, P-410. 

18. S.G. Deogaonkar 1980 in his Problems of Development of Tribal 

Areas Leeladevi Publication, New Delhi. P-170 

19. R.K. Mutatkar, 1990, Socio-Culture Dynamics of Tribal Life, Tribal 

Research and Training Institute, Pune. (Maharastra), P-20 

20. S.G. Deogaonkar 1994 in his Tribal Administration and Develop­

ment. With Ethnographic profiles of Selected Tribes, Concept pub­

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21. Singha Surajit 1958 tribal cultures of Peninsular India as a Dimen­

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Journal of Folklore, 71 PP. 504-518.